Data-Driven Energy Transition: Earth Observation and Sustainable Energy Governance in Developing Countries

Data as of 2019 show that approximately 1.1 billion people worldwide still live without access to electricity, the vast majority of them in rural and remote areas of developing countries. This vast picture of "energy poverty" is the core challenge addressed by the seventh goal of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)—"ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all." However, a frequently overlooked fact is that when grid planners are at a loss in the face of rugged terrain and scattered settlements, observation satellites orbiting the Earth are continuously generating high-resolution data on the physical geography, population distribution, climate resources, and nighttime lights of these regions. Data do not automatically transform into electricity, but if properly embedded in governance systems, they can profoundly change the direction and efficiency of energy investment.

The technical essence of Earth Observation (EO) is spatial information collection, but its policy significance goes far beyond the category of "remote sensing." In the energy sector, EO is both a resource mapping tool and a decision-support mechanism. A review article published in Frontiers in Environmental Science systematically examines the application prospects of EO in the energy sectors of developing countries: nighttime light imagery can be used to estimate the progress of rural electrification; Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) products can monitor vegetation growth risks in transmission line management; solar radiation data support site selection and revenue assessment for renewable energy projects; and nowcasting of extreme weather helps with grid operation and emergency response. These applications are not isolated technology demonstrations; their common feature is that they provide a "governance-oriented data infrastructure" that reduces costs and improves accuracy.

For developing countries, investment in energy infrastructure has long been constrained by both high fixed costs and high uncertainty. Traditional grid expansion planning relies on ground surveys, which are costly and slowly updated; in areas with security or geographic constraints, data gaps often lead to investment mismatches. EO data makes it possible to "first survey, then invest." For example, when comparing main grid extension with distributed solar solutions, satellite imagery can help identify the spatial distribution and scale of remote settlements, and combined with demographic and socioeconomic information, generate more precise electrification pathways. In the renewable energy sector, long-term accumulated solar irradiance data provide a reliable reference for feasibility analysis and financing decisions of photovoltaic projects, thereby reducing financial risks caused by insufficient resource assessment.However, the energy transition is not merely a technical issue; it is also a social and institutional one. The siting of large-scale renewable energy projects often encounters opposition from local communities—the "Not In My Backyard" (NIMBY) phenomenon. Public acceptance directly affects the pace of project advancement and long-term sustainability. EO information plays the role of a "transparency intermediary" here: through visual maps and environmental impact assessments, project developers and communities can discuss potential impacts and collective benefits on a shared information basis. The review cites the case of a large-scale solar project in Morocco—using EO to identify settlements and community boundaries, incorporating socio-spatial factors at the initial stage of the project, thereby building a more inclusive consultation process. This precisely reflects the combination of the "social" and "governance" dimensions in the ESG framework: data disclosure enhances the traceability of decisions, and participatory mechanisms enhance the political legitimacy of projects.

Despite considerable potential, the actual penetration of EO in the energy sector of developing countries still faces multiple structural barriers. The first is the professional capacity gap: many electric utilities lack technical personnel to process and analyze satellite data. The second is institutional fragmentation: data-sharing mechanisms between energy planning departments and space, environmental, surveying, and mapping agencies are not yet mature, suppressing cross-sectoral collaboration. In addition, inadequate digital infrastructure also limits the downscaling of data products to grassroots governance. Therefore, the review emphasizes that the focus of international cooperation should not remain solely on data provision, but should also invest in stakeholder participation, customized capacity training, and long-term talent system building. This judgment is highly consistent with the core logic of the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development (SDG17): knowledge transfer and localized application are far more durable than single-dimensional technology delivery.

From the perspective of global governance, the process of making Earth observation data public is actually constructing a new kind of "global public good." It transforms technical capabilities originally serving the space programs of developed countries into decision-making tools that support the Global South in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. In this transformation, international organizations, multilateral development banks, and development research institutions play the role of connectors. More importantly, the application of EO reveals a window of opportunity different from the traditional high-carbon development path: if developing countries can make full use of data-driven distributed renewable energy planning before grid expansion, they have a chance to avoid repeating the trap of high-emission infrastructure lock-in, while improving efficiency on both supply and demand sides.

Looking ahead, artificial intelligence and digital twin technologies will significantly advance the spatiotemporal resolution and predictive capabilities of EO data. But the real constraint may not lie in the technology itself, but in whether countries have the institutional flexibility to integrate spatial data into fiscal budgets, development planning, and public accountability. Energy access has never been an isolated variable—it is closely linked to health, education, gender equality, and climate action. Therefore, promoting the application of EO in energy governance is essentially improving the "computability" foundation of the global development system, making resource allocation more transparent, risk management more forward-looking, and policy evaluation more reliable.Ultimately, from orbit to power grid, from data to decision-making, Earth observation provides not just maps, but a more responsible approach to development. When developing countries are able to autonomously use these data tools, the elimination of energy poverty is no longer a grandiose slogan, but a public governance agenda that can be planned, financed, and monitored.